Efficient Integration of Green's functions: Ver. 1.1
The original has been published
in Phys. Rev. B 75, 035123 (2007)
Taisuke Ozaki, RCIS, JAIST
Abstract:
An efficient and accurate contour integration method is presented for large-scale
electronic structure calculations based on the Green function. By introducing
a continued fraction representation of the Fermi-Dirac function derived from
a hypergeometric function, the Matsubara summation is generalized
with respect to distribution of poles so that the integration of the Green function
can converge rapidly.
Numerical illustrations, evaluation of the density matrix for a simple model Green function
and a total energy calculation for aluminum bulk within density functional theory,
clearly show that the method provides remarkable convergence with a small number
of poles, indicating that the method can be applied to not only the electronic
structure calculations, but also a wide variety of problems.
The integration of the Green function associated with the Fermi-Dirac function
is one of the most important ingredients for accurate and efficient implementation of
electronic structure calculation methods regardless of ab initio or
semi-empirical schemes. One can realize that the integration arises in lots of
electronic structure calculation methods such as the Korringa-Kohn-Rostoker (KKR)
Green function method,[1,2,3] Green function based O() methods such as
a recursion method,[4,5] a surface Green function method[6]
such as an embedded method,[7] and Green function methods
based on a many body perturbation theory such as the GW method.[8,9]
Therefore, it is obvious that a highly accurate and efficient method must be
developed for the integration to extend applicability of these electronic
structure calculation methods. Since the well-known Matsubara summation [15,16]
is insufficient for this purpose due to the slow convergence,
considerable efforts have been devoted for development of efficient integration
methods.[10,11,12,13,14]
A way of developing an efficient method beyond the Matsubara summation is to seek
another expression for the Fermi-Dirac function.
Along this line, an expression
is used by Nicholson et al.,[10]
and an integral representation is proposed by Goedecker.[11]
In this paper I seek a different expression for the Fermi-Dirac function, and
present an accurate and efficient method for the integration, based on a continued fraction
representation of the Fermi-Dirac function which is derived from a hypergeometric function.
Because of a simple distribution of poles in the continued fraction similar to
the Matsubara poles, it is anticipated that the proposed method can be easily incorporated
into many applications with the same procedure as for the Matsubara summation but with
remarkable efficiency.
It will be shown that the rapid convergence in the integration can be attributed to
an interesting non-uniform distribution of the poles on the imaginary axis, and that
even a small number of poles in the contour integration enables us to
achieve convergent results with precision of more than ten digits.
This paper is organized as follows:
In Sec. II the theory of the proposed method is presented with comparison to
other methods.
In Sec. III in order to illustrate the rapid convergence properties of the proposed
method I give two numerical examples: a calculation of the density matrix for a simple
model Green function and a total energy calculation of aluminum bulk within a density
functional theory.
In Sec. IV the theory and applicability of the proposed method are summarized.
Let us introduce a continued fraction representation of the Fermi-Dirac
function which is derived from a hypergeometric function:
|
|
|
(1) |
where
with
,
is chemical potential, electronic temperature, and
are complex variables.
The derivation of Eq. (1) is given in the Appendix A.
Figure 1 shows the approximate Fermi-Dirac function terminated at 60 levels
of the continued fraction given by Eq. (1) as a function of
together with the exact Fermi-Dirac function,
with , and the Matsubara expansion. Note that all the approximants
possess the same number of poles, 120 poles, on the whole complex plane for
substantial comparison.
It is found that the approximate function by Eq. (1) can reproduce accurately
the Fermi-Dirac function for a wide range of energy compared to the function
which has been previously used to approximate the Fermi-Dirac
function in a contour integration method,[10] while the Matsubara
expansion poorly approximates the Fermi-Dirac function when curtailed at
a finite number of poles.
[17]
Now I consider the termination of the continued fraction Eq. (1) to
a finite level , and assume is an even number,
i.e.,
.
It can be pointed out that Eq. (1) with the finite continued fraction may correspond
to the Padé approximant
of the Fermi-Dirac function itself rather
than the exponential function, where and are relevant polynomials of
M-th order.
Thus,
is zero up to -th order of ,
where is the Taylor series of the Fermi-Dirac function.[19]
In this sense the proposed method is similar to the integral representation of
the Fermi-Dirac function proposed by Goedecker,[11]
while the overall feature of the derivation looks very different.
In case of , for instance, Eq. (1) with the finite continued fraction is
decomposed into partial fractions via the Padé approximant as follows:
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
(2) |
In general, for the finite continued fraction terminated at , the Fermi-Dirac
function can be approximated by the sum of partial fractions with the poles
and residues as follows:
|
|
|
(3) |
The expression becomes exact in case of the limit: .
Noting that
and is an odd function,
it is found that the poles are symmetrically located on the complex plane with
respect to the real axis. Furthermore, it will be shown in later discussion that
the poles are located on only the imaginary axis and that the residues are real numbers.
Thus, note that is a real number in Eq. (3).
In case of an odd number of , an additional term which is proportional to
is added to Eq. (3), and I will not discuss the odd case in this paper.
Although and may be analytically expressed for any termination to
arbitrary order of , however, the formulae tend to be overly complicated to handle
as increases. Thus, I present an alternative method of finding these values by
introducing an eigenvalue problem.
Taking account of a fact that the (1,1) element of
the inverse of a tridiagonal matrix defined by
|
|
|
(4) |
is given by
|
|
|
(5) |
and comparing the continued fraction in the parenthesis of the right hand side
of Eq. (1) with Eq. (5), the matrix elements of can be determined as follows:
|
|
|
(6) |
|
|
|
(7) |
where runs from 1 to for , and from 1 to for
and .
Thus, one obtain an interesting relation that the Fermi-Dirac function can be
expressed by the (1,1) element of the resolvent of :
|
|
|
(8) |
with
|
|
|
(9) |
and
|
|
|
(10) |
where and are matrices of in size, and Eq. (8) becomes
exact as increases. The relation Eq. (8) tells us that finding the singular
points of Eq. (1) is equivalent to solving the generalized eigenvalue problem
, where is the eigenvector. Moreover, replacing with
yields . Then, it can be proven that the eigenvalue is a pure imaginary number,
giving that is a real number in Eq. (3), since is a real number due to the
symmetric real matrices and .[20]
The imaginary eigenvalues go away from the real axis and the distribution becomes
sparse as the distance between the pole and the real axis increases as shown in the inset
of Fig. 2, and this is a key feature for the fast convergence in the integrations of the
Green function as shown later,
since the Green function becomes structureless, while going away from the real axis.
In addition, noting that the residue calculated from the eigenvectors
for is a real number, since the eigenvectors consist of real numbers,
and that
one can find that the residue in Eq. (3) is a real number, where
and appearing in the first line of Eq. (11) are due to
the symmetry of .
Thus, the poles and residues in Eq. (1) can be easily obtained by
solving the eigenvalue problem with the real symmetric matrices
and without any numerical difficulty.[21]
The characteristic feature of Eq. (1) that the poles are located on the imaginary axis
and the residues are real is similar to that of the Matsubara summation.
It is noted that the Fermi-Dirac function in the Matsubara summation is expressed
by a development:
|
|
|
(11) |
with the poles
and the residues .
This relation Eq. (12) can be derived by taking account of Eq. (A10) and the Mittag-Leffler
expansion [22] for . Therefore, one may think that their
convergence properties should be comparable to each other. However, it will be shown later
that the continued fraction representation by Eq. (1) provides a remarkable convergence
speed compared to the Matsubara summation. The roots of the rapid convergence lies on
an interesting non-uniform distribution of the poles on the imaginary axis.
It is observed from Fig. 3 that in case of the interval between neighboring
poles of Eq. (1) are uniformly located up to around 61th poles with the same interval
as that of the Matsubara poles, and from then onward it increases very rapidly as the distance
between the pole and the real axis increases, while the Matsubara poles distribute uniformly
on the imaginary axis everywhere. The distribution of the poles seems to be almost
independent of the number of poles , provided that the pole index is normalized
by the number of poles on the upper half complex plane, i.e., the interval starts
to increase rapidly at about 61 % of the total number of poles .
The sparse distribution of poles of Eq. (1) in the faraway region
from the real axis well matches the fact that the Green function becomes a smooth
function, while going away from the real axis, and by covering a wide range of the
imaginary axis with a small number of poles, the continued fraction representation
Eq. (1) can reproduce very well the Fermi-Dirac function on the real axis as
shown in Fig. 1. The property is the reason why Eq. (1) is much superior
to the Matsubara summation for the integration of the Green function.
We are now ready to make full use of Eq. (3) to evaluate integrated quantities
associated with a Green function with the Fermi-Dirac function.
Here, as an example, I consider evaluation of the one-particle density matrix ,
which is one of the most important quantities in electronic structure calculations,
calculated by the Green function being an analytic function apart
from the real axis with the Fermi-Dirac function.
Considering the expression of Eq. (3) and the contour integral with an integration
path on the upper half complex plane as shown in Fig. 2,
the density matrix can be evaluated by
where the factor 2 in the first line is for spin multiplicity,
, the zeroth order
moment of the Green function, and a positive infinitesimal.
This expression Eq. (13) is valid for Green functions such as
and
, where and are real symmetric Hamiltonian
and overlap matrices, and is an energy-dependent matrix such as
a self-energy matrix which is real symmetric on the real axis.
A more general case with energy dependent complex matrices is discussed in
the Appendix B. The first term in the second line of Eq. (13) is transformed
into the zeroth order moment of the Green function
by the contour integration as follows:
Although the evaluation of the second term in the final line of Eq. (13) is
straightforward, the calculation of the first term is nontrivial.
However, it is shown that the zeroth order moment can be easily evaluated by
utilizing the moment representation of the Green function as shown below.
Starting from the Lehmann representation of the Green function
and taking account of
for
, one can obtain the moment representation of the Green
function:
|
|
|
(14) |
where is the th moment of the Green function defined by
|
|
|
(15) |
On the other hand, multiplying the both side of Eq. (15) by and integrating from
to along the real axis with an infinitesimal imaginary
part , one has an alternative expression for the moment:
|
|
|
(16) |
It is found that the case of in Eq. (17) corresponds to Eq. (14).
Writing
in Eq. (15), assuming that is large enough
so that the terms associated with higher orders of can be negligible, and
taking
, one can obtain an approximate expression for
:
|
|
|
(17) |
where is a large real number and 1.0e+10 is used in this study.
Therefore, one can see that just one evaluation of the Green function yields
the zeroth order moment .
In Eq. (13) the integration on the real axis is transformed into
a quadrature on an axis perpendicular to the real axis with the characteristic
distribution of the poles except for the evaluation of the zeroth moment .
Thus, it is reasonable to anticipate that the density matrix evaluated by
Eq. (13) quickly converges as a function of the number of poles, since
the Green function becomes structureless by going away from own poles located
on the real axis.
In this subsection an expression is given for the evaluation of a general
density matrix defined by
|
|
|
(18) |
where it is assumed that the Green function possesses the same property
as discussed for Eq. (13).
It is worth mentioning that is a conventional density matrix given by Eq. (13),
and is the so called energy density matrix.
Noting that
,
and taking account of Eq. (3), one has the following expression:
This expression becomes exact in case of .
Therefore, putting Eq. (20) into Eq. (19) and considering a contour integration
with the same path given by Fig. 2 as discussed for Eq. (13), we see that
can be evaluated by
with
|
|
|
(20) |
The moments up to th orders in Eq. (21) can be evaluated by
generalizing the way of calculating discussed in the previous
subsection. If the summation in the moment representation Eq. (15) of the
Green function is terminated at the th level, the moments up to th
orders can be determined by solving a linear equation for each element (i,j):
|
|
|
(21) |
where
are large complex numbers, and can be given
by
with a large ,
while they can be chosen arbitrarily only if
is
large enough so that the higher order terms can be negligible.
Thus, one can see that the general density matrix is evaluated by
the proposed method as well as the conventional density matrix.
In the Appendix C the integrations of the Green function with the derivative
of the Fermi-Dirac function with respect to energy are discussed.
To demonstrate the rapid convergence of the proposed method I give two numerical
examples, (i) calculation of the density matrix for a simple model Green function
and (ii) a total energy calculation of aluminum bulk in the face centered
cubic (FCC) structure within the Harris density functional.[23]
As a simple model, let us consider a model Green function
given by
|
|
|
(22) |
where the unit of energy is in eV. It is assumed that the chemical potential
is 0 eV and that the electronic temperature is 300 K. Table I show the density
matrix calculated by three method: the proposed method through Eq. (13),
the method discussed in Ref. [10], and the Matsubara summation.[15]
We see that the density matrix calculated by
the proposed method rapidly converges at the analytic value (3.0) using
only 40 poles, while the convergence speed by the second method is about three
times slower than that of the proposed method. Also, the stepwise improvement of the density
matrix in the second method is attributed to the plunge step of the approximate
function
used in the method in the lower energy
region as shown in Fig. 1. It is also confirmed that the convergence of the Matsubara
summation is quite slow.
As well as the simple model, I show in Table II the convergence of the total energy
calculated by the recursion method [5] with the Harris functional[23]
for FCC aluminum as a function of the number of poles.
In this calculation I use pseudo-atomic double valence numerical functions as basis set,[24]
a norm-conserving pseudopotential,[25] and a generalized gradient approximation (GGA)
to the exchange-correlation potential.[26] The Green function is evaluated by the recursion
method with ten recursion levels.[5] Also, an electronic temperature of 600 K is used.
The DFT calculation was done using the OpenMX code.[27]
As shown in Table II, it is obvious that the proposed method provides remarkable
rapid convergence. The use of only 80 poles yields the convergent result of 14 digits
which corresponds to the limit of double precision. On the other hand, it turns out
that the second and third methods are much slower than the proposed method,
and that the full convergence is not achieved even in case of ten thousands poles.
It is also worth mentioning that the proposed method can be applicable to insulators
and semi-conductors as well as metallic systems without depending the magnitude of band
gap in a system if the Fermi energy is determined so that the total number of electrons
in the whole system can be conserved.
I have developed an efficient contour integration method for electronic structure
calculation methods based on the Green function. By introducing a continued fraction
representation of the Fermi-Dirac function, the integration of Green function with
the Fermi-Dirac function on the real axis is transformed into a quadrature
on an axis perpendicular to the real axis except for the evaluation of the moments.
Although the feature is similar to that of the Matsubara summation, the most important
distinction between those lies on the distribution of poles.
The poles of the continued fraction distribute uniformly on an axis perpendicular
to the real axis with the same interval as the Matsubara poles up to about 61 %
of the total number of poles, and from then onward the interval between neighboring
poles increases rapidly as the poles go away from the real axis, while the Matsubara
poles are uniformly located on an axis perpendicular to the real axis.
The characteristic distribution of poles in the continued fraction well matches
the smoothness of the Green function in the distant region from the real axis,
and therefore enables us to achieve the remarkable convergence using a small number of
poles. The numerical examples clearly demonstrate the computational efficiency
and accuracy of the proposed method.
Since the contour integration by the continued fraction representation can be
regarded as a natural generalization of the Matsubara summation with respect to
the distribution of poles, it is anticipated that the proposed method
can be applied to not only the electronic structure calculation methods,
but also many other applications.
Acknowledgments
The author was partly supported by CREST-JST and the Next Generation Super
Computing Project, Nanoscience Program, MEXT, Japan.
In this Appendix the continued fraction representation Eq. (1) of the Fermi-Dirac function
is derived using a hypergeometric function.
The generalized hypergeometric function is defined as a power series expansion by
|
|
|
(A.1) |
with
|
|
|
(A.2) |
where is the Pochhammer symbol defined by
|
|
|
(A.3) |
with an exceptional definition of in case of .
The special cases of Eq. (A1) yield the following relations:
|
|
|
(A.4) |
|
|
|
(A.5) |
For later discussion, I will drop the suffixes of the hypergeometric function
for simplicity of notation, and define to be
.
Furthermore, let us introduce a recurrence relation for :
This relation can be proven by comparing the term in the power series
piece by piece. Dividing both the sides of Eq. (A6) by and
considering the reciprocal, one has
|
|
|
(A.6) |
Replacing the ratio of in the right hand side of Eq. (A7) by Eq. (A7) with
increment of by one recursively, one can obtain the following continued fraction:
|
|
|
(A.7) |
Now can be expressed by a continued fraction using Eqs. (A4), (A5), and (A8)
as follows:
Noting that
,
one has
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
(A.9) |
Inserting Eq. (A9) into Eq. (A10) yields the continued fraction representation Eq. (1)
of the Fermi-Dirac function.
If the Green function consists of energy dependent complex matrices,
a more general expression, different from Eq. (13), is used to
calculate the density matrix. As such a case, here let us assume that the
Green function consists of matrices depending on energy and k-point , i.e.,
where and are complex and real variables, respectively, and the second and
third lines are the Lehmann and moment representations of the Green function.
It is assumed that poles of the Green function Eq. (B1) are located on the real axis,
which is verified at least in case the self-energy matrix is calculated using
the surface Green function.[6]
Considering that off-diagonal elements of
are complex in general,
the density of states
depending on is given using both
the retarded and advanced Green functions,
and
, by
where the factor 2 due to spin multiplicity was considered.
Thus, the density matrix can be evaluated by
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
(B.4) |
where is the volume of the unit cell, represents the integration
over the first Brillouin zone, and
and
are defined by
Thus, we see that from the Green function defined by Eq. (B1) the density matrix can be
easily evaluated using the proposed method, since
and
are
computed in the same way as for Eq. (13) by considering the contour integrals in the upper and
lower complex planes, respectively.
The calculations of physical quantities such as electric and thermal conductances
require integrals with the derivative of the Fermi-Dirac function with respect to
energy. In the Appendix I give the outline for applying the proposed method to
such cases.
By making use of the continued fraction representation Eq. (1) of the Fermi-Dirac
function, the derivative of the Fermi-Dirac function can be expressed as follows:
where
, , and is given by
It is found from Eq. (C1) that the derivative of the Fermi-Dirac function
approximated by the finite continued fraction possesses the second order poles
of the continued fraction as well as the first order poles.
Therefore, if the Green function is analytic around the pole,
by Taylor expanding it at the pole as
one has to include contributions of the derivative of the Green function
with respect to energy which can be evaluated through a response function
calculated from the Green functions.
-
- 1
-
J. Korringa, Physica 13, 392 (1947).
- 2
-
W. Kohn and N. Rostoker, Phys. Rev. 94, 1111 (1954).
- 3
-
N. Papanikolaou, R. Zeller, and P. H. Dederichs,
J. Phys.: Condens. Matter 14, 2799 (2002).
- 4
-
R. Haydock, V. Heine, and M.J. Kelly, J. Phys. C 5, 2845 (1972); 8, 2591 (1975);
R. Haydock, Solid State Phys. 35, 216 (1980).
- 5
-
T. Ozaki and K. Terakura,
Phys. Rev. B 64, 195126 (2001).
- 6
-
M.P. Lopez Sancho, J.M. Lopez Sancho, J.M.L. Sancho, and J. Rubio,
J. Phys. F 15, 851 (1985).
- 7
-
J. Inglesfield, J. Phys. C 14, 3795 (1981).
- 8
-
L. Hedin, Phys. Rev. A 139, 796 (1965).
- 9
-
F. Aryasetiawan and O. Gunnarsson,
Rep. Prog. Phys. 61, 237 (1998).
- 10
-
D.M.C. Nicholson, G.M. Stocks, Y. Wang, W.A. Shelton, Z. Szotek, and W.M. Temmerman,
Phys. Rev. B 50, 14686 (1994).
- 11
-
S. Goedecker,
Phys. Rev. B 48, 17573 (1993).
- 12
-
K. Wildberger, P. Lang, R. Zeller, and P.H. Dederichs,
Phys. Rev. B 52, 11502 (1995).
- 13
-
V. Drchal, J. Kudrnovský, P. Bruno, I. Turek, P.H. Dederichs, and P. Weinberger,
Phys. Rev. B 60, 9588 (1999).
- 14
-
F. Gagel,
J. Comput. Phys. 139, 399 (1998).
- 15
-
T. Matsubara, Prog. Theor. Phys. 14, 351 (1955).
- 16
-
G. D. Mahan, Many Particle Physics, (Plenum, New York, 1981).
- 17
-
In addition to Eq. (1), I investigated the convergence properties of other continued
fraction representations of the Fermi-Dirac function, which are given in Ref. [17],
and it turned out that Eq. (1) is the best convergent approximant among these
continued fraction representations. However, there is a possibility of further
improvement for the convergence of the continued fraction representation, e.g.,
a continued fraction derived from a multipoints Padé approximant.
- 18
-
L. Lorentzen and H. Waadeland,
Continued Fractions with Applications,
Amsterdam, Netherlands: North-Holland, 1992.
- 19
-
Although the rigorous proof remains unavailable, I confirmed validity of the statement
for the cases up to by MATHEMATICA.
- 20
-
Consider an eigenvalue problem having the same eigenvalues and
eigenvectors as for , where and .
Noting that is positive definite, the eigenvalue problem can be
transformed into
, where is
a diagonal matrix of which diagonal elements are the inverse of square root
of the corresponding diagonal element of , and .
If the dimension of is an even number , the determinant of
is , while it is zero in case of an odd number,
in this case is a well defined real symmetric matrix.
Thus, it is found that the eigenvalues and eigenvectors
of are purely real, provided that the dimension of is
an even number .
- 21
-
Tables for the poles and residues, and a program code of generating those
are freely available on a web site (http://staff.aist.go.jp/t-ozaki/) under
the term of GNU-GPL.
- 22
-
I.S. Gradshtein, I.M. Ryzhik, Table of integrals, series, and products,
A. Jeffrey, Ed. (Academic Press, New York, 1980).
- 23
-
J. Harris, Phys. Rev. B 31, 1770 (1985).
- 24
-
T. Ozaki, Phys. Rev. B. 67, 155108 (2003);
T. Ozaki and H. Kino, ibid. 69, 195113 (2004).
- 25
-
N. Troullier and J.L. Martins, Phys. Rev. B 43, 1993 (1991).
- 26
-
J.P. Perdew, K. Burke, and M. Ernzerhof,
Phys. Rev. Lett. 77, 3865 (1996).
- 27
-
The code, OpenMX, pseudo-atomic basis functions, and pseudopotentials are
available on a web site (http://www.openmx-square.org/).
Table:
The density matrix of a model Green function given by Eq. (24) as
a function of the number of poles in the upper half plane used in
three contour integration methods. The analytic value is 3.0.
Poles |
Proposed |
|
Matsubara |
10 |
2.897457365704 |
0.000000000704 |
2.268430836092 |
20 |
2.999785910601 |
0.938582044963 |
2.424349652146 |
30 |
2.999999992975 |
1.000000000000 |
2.520372160464 |
40 |
3.000000000000 |
1.000000000001 |
2.588358024187 |
60 |
- |
2.000000000000 |
2.681479492145 |
80 |
- |
2.000000000000 |
2.742612466824 |
100 |
- |
2.999998800183 |
2.785347036205 |
120 |
- |
3.000000000000 |
2.816567540132 |
200 |
- |
- |
2.885375367071 |
500 |
- |
- |
2.953166094829 |
5000 |
- |
- |
2.995297020881 |
Table:
The total energy (Hartree) of FCC aluminum bulk calculated by the recursion
method with the Harris functional as a function of the number of poles
in the upper half plane used in three contour integration methods,
where the electronic temperature is 600 (K) corresponding to a smearing
of 0.052 (eV). It is noted that the width of the valence band consisting of
and orbitals up to the Fermi level is about 10 (eV).
Poles |
Proposed |
|
Matsubara |
10 |
-42.933903047211 |
-33.734015919550 |
-39.612354360046 |
20 |
-47.224346653790 |
-33.623477214678 |
-39.849746603905 |
40 |
-48.323790725570 |
-33.346245616679 |
-40.216055898502 |
60 |
-48.324441992259 |
-33.143128624551 |
-39.676965494522 |
80 |
-48.324441994952 |
-32.870752577236 |
-43.523770052176 |
150 |
-48.324441994952 |
-33.837428496424 |
-41.836938942518 |
200 |
- |
-33.418012271726 |
-42.543354202255 |
250 |
- |
-34.003411636691 |
-43.024756221080 |
300 |
- |
-34.003236479262 |
-43.466729654170 |
350 |
- |
-48.324440028792 |
-43.834528739677 |
400 |
- |
-48.324440274509 |
-44.185100655185 |
600 |
- |
-48.324440847749 |
-45.233651519749 |
1000 |
- |
-48.324441306517 |
-46.331692884149 |
2000 |
- |
-48.324441650693 |
-47.202779497545 |
5000 |
- |
-48.324441857239 |
-47.921384128418 |
10000 |
- |
-48.324441926094 |
-48.122496320516 |
Figure:
(Color online) The Fermi-Dirac function and its approximants as a function
of the real axis .
For substantial comparison all the approximants possess the same number of poles,
120 poles.
|
Figure:
The path of the contour integration associated with Eq. (1).
The inset shows the distribution of zero points of Eq. (1).
|
Figure:
(Color online)
The interval between neighboring poles of Eq. (1) terminated at
as a function of an index of poles,
where the index of poles is determined in ascending order with respect to the absolute value
of poles. The interval for the Matsubara poles is .
|
2008-06-11